The Need For A Theory Of Syntax For SFL: The Argument Summarised [5]

Fawcett (2010: 154-5):

8. Halliday recognises that the 'multiple structures' of IFG — which we shall assume for the moment to be capable of being generated by the grammar — must ultimately be merged into a single structure at the level of form. 

9. However, there are several serious problems in reconciling Halliday's multiple structure representations with this position. No advocate of it has yet stated what it actually means when one says that the various structures get conflated with each other — other than treating all such 'functions' as elements of a 'flat tree' representation of constituency, which would be the dismemberment of those structures rather than a 'conflation of them. Such a conflation has not even been achieved with simple clauses, either in the framework of a computer implementation or as a theoretical exercise (as I have shown in Section 7.4). On the basis of this evidence and my own failure to find a way to make this approach work, I make two proposals:

(1) 'multiple structures' with non-coterminous elements cannot be integrated in the manner proposed by Halliday, so that another solution to the problem of generating a single structural output must be sought; and 

(2) even if such structures could be integrated, something like an updated version of S&C-type syntax would be required to achieve this — i.e., a syntax such as that to be described in Part 2.

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading, because it misrepresents Halliday's model. In SFL Theory, there is no merger of structures, no structures at the level of form, and no level of form. Instead, the three metafunctional clause structures are all realised by the same syntagm of units at the rank below the clause (group/phrase) — at the level (stratum) of lexicogrammar.

[2] This is misleading, because 'this position' is not Halliday's position; see [1].

[3] To be clear, the reason why no-one has tackled the problem of structure conflation is that structure conflation is not part of SFL Theory. The notion only arises through Fawcett's misunderstandings of Halliday's notions of structure and constituency, as previously demonstrated.

[4] Here Fawcett repeats his incomprehension of 'flat tree' constituency.  'Flat tree' constituency describes ranked constituent analysis (minimal bracketing) as opposed to immediate constituent analysis (maximal bracketing); see Halliday (1994: 20-4). That is, it refers to the rank scale of forms in SFL theory. Elements of function structure, on the other hand, are not formal constituents, but the functions (e.g. Sayer) that formal constituents (e.g. nominal group) realise.

[5] This is misleading, because it is untrue. See the earlier post Misconstruing The Conflation Of Elements As The Dismemberment Of One Element.

[6] To be clear, here Fawcett proposes solving a non-existent problem in SFL Theory by using an approach that is inconsistent with SFL Theory (syntax) that is derived from Halliday's superseded theory (Scale and Category Grammar).

The Need For A Theory Of Syntax For SFL: The Argument Summarised [4]

Fawcett (2010: 154):

7. Thus Halliday now presents the structure of a clause (and in principle other units) as multiple structures. In any such representation of a clause there is, in principle, a line of structure that corresponds to each 'metafunction' (but in practice several more, with seven for many text-sentences as analysed in IFG). Each line consists of a string of 'functional elements', or 'functions'. The problem is that the elements of these 'structures' are not necessarily coterminous (and nor are the structures themselves coterminous). In other words, if two or more elements in two or more strands of meaning are coterminous, they can be conflated with each other to form a compound element, but when they are not coterminous it is not logically possible to conflate them (as described in Section 7.4 of this chapter). Despite these serious theoretical-generative problems, it appears that Halliday may regard the notion that there are many different structures (and so many non-coterminous elements) in a single clause as one of the riches of language — at least from the text-descriptive viewpoint, as exemplified in the analyses in IFG.

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading, because it is untrue. In IFG, what Fawcett refers to as "text-sentences" — his model, not SFL Theory — are the three metafunctional clause structures. The reason why Fawcett thinks there are "several more" is that he mistakes information structure as a clause structure, and counts mood and thematic structures twice because of their structural components (e.g. Subject of the Mood element, and topical Theme of the Theme element).

[2] To be clear, as previously explained, in SFL Theory, there is no need to conflate any elements. It is simply the case that, under certain circumstances, some elements do happen to conflate, as when Subject conflates with Behaver in behavioural clauses. The three metafunctional structures of the clause are integrated in the syntagm of units at the rank below, as when Subject and Behaver are realised by the same nominal group.

[3] To be clear, the conflation of two elements, such as Subject and Behaver, does not result in a "compound element", since each element is an element of a different structure, and, in SFL Theory, a structure is the relation between elements (e.g the relation of Subject to Finite, or the relation of Behaver to Process).

The Need For A Theory Of Syntax For SFL: The Argument Summarised [3]

Fawcett (2010: 153-4):

5. In two of the papers in which Halliday takes the position that the system networks of TRANSITIVITY, MOOD and THEME are at the level of semantics (1970/76b and 1977/78) he includes diagrams that show (1) several lines of analysis, each of which clearly corresponds to a major strand of meaning, and (2), below these, a single line of analysis that shows the 'Scale and Category' elements of the clause, such that this line represents the integration of the metafunctional representations above it. It is from this stage of Halliday's thinking that the Cardiff Grammar version of SFL has developed (as shown in Section 4.9 of Chapter 4).

6. However, these two papers represent just a brief period in the development of Halliday's concept of how structure should be represented, and almost immediately he dropped the integrative representation in his diagrams in favour of the type of representation shown throughout IFG and his subsequent descriptive works to date. Here the original S&C elements of Subject, Predicator, Complement and Adjunct are no longer shown as elements of the structure that integrates the various strands of meaning, but instead they are introduced as a structure within the representation of 'interpersonal' meaning (with the addition of the Finite). Indeed, Halliday presents them as merely the 'secondary' structure of 'interpersonal' meaning, the 'primary' structure being that of "Mood + Residue" (also called "Modal + Propositional", in earlier works). Halliday's reasons for including the elements of 'Predicator', 'Complement' and 'Adjunct' in the 'interpersonal' line of analysis (which were summarised in Section 7.2) are considered here to be unpersuasive — especially in comparison with the much more persuasive reason for assigning them the role described in Point 5 above, namely their role as elements of the structure that integrates the various strands of meaning (with others, as illustrated in Appendix B).

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading, because it misrepresents Halliday's final theory, Systemic Functional Grammar, in terms of his earliest theory, Scale and Category Grammar (1961). The terms 'primary and 'secondary' — but not 'merely' — derive from Halliday originally applying the principle of delicacy to structure (Halliday 2002 [1961]: 48). This old view is inconsistent with SFL Theory, where delicacy is a type of elaboration, whereas structural composition — e.g. Mood composed of Subject and Finite — is a type of extension; see Halliday & Matthiessen (1999: 145-6).

[2] See Fawcett's previous misunderstandings and bare assertions on this matter here. To be clear, labelling Halliday's reasons 'unpersuasive' and Fawcett's reason 'persuasive' is not reasoned argumentation based on evidence. Importantly, in SFL Theory, the integration of 'the various strands  of meaning' of the clause occurs in the form that realises the elements of clause structure: the syntagm of units on the rank below the clause.

Fawcett, on the other hand, argues against the value of a rank scale, and uses a blending of Halliday's interpersonal and experiential functions as his means of integrating 'the various strands of meaning' at his level of form, as his Figure 10 (p148) demonstrates:

The Need For A Theory Of Syntax For SFL: The Argument Summarised [2]

Fawcett (2010: 153):

4. However, Halliday's writings in the 1970s and 1980s have explored two approaches to modelling meaning in language. One of these involves treating the system networks for TRANSITIVITY, MOOD, THEME and so on as the level of semantics. In the second model these networks are considered to be, in some sense, at the level of form — though it is a 'form' that has been 'pushed in the direction of the semantics' (Halliday 1994:xix) — and there is (in principle) a higher stratum of even more 'semantic' system networks that correspond to each of the networks of TRANSITIVITY, MOOD, THEME, etc. I prefer the first (and simpler) of these two positions, and I consider that the phenomena for which Halliday sets up the second level of 'meaning' can be more appropriately accounted for in other ways (as argued in Sections 4.6 to 4.8 of Chapter 4).

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, in Halliday's superseded model, written between 1972 and 1976, structures produced by semantic systems were mapped onto units of the grammatical rank scale. By the 1980s, these semantic systems were reconstrued as lexicogrammatical systems, so as to account for grammatical metaphor.

[2] This is misleading on two counts. Firstly, in the second model — the current model — these systems are located on the stratum of lexicogrammar, not form; 'form' is a level in Fawcett's model only. In Systemic Functional Grammar, form is modelled as a rank scale of units, each of which serves as the entry condition to functional systems. Secondly, the quote from Halliday (1994: xix) is explicitly concerned with a functional grammar, not form:

[3] To be clear, 'I prefer' and 'I consider that…' are not reasoned argumentation based on evidence.

[4] This very misleading indeed. Fawcett provides no argument whatsoever in Sections 4.6 to 4.8 (pp53-70) for the "other ways" that grammatical metaphor can be "more appropriately accounted for". The only statement in this regard, in the entire three sections, is yet another bare assertion, and the promise of a still unpublished work, in footnote 7 on page 57:

I consider that the phenomena that have led Halliday to adopt his latest position are to be explained in other ways (one being to further semanticise some of Halliday's networks, e.g., that for MOOD). See Fawcett (forthcoming a) for a set of such semantic system networks.

The Need For A Theory Of Syntax For SFL: The Argument Summarised [1]

Fawcett (2010: 152-3):

We are now in a position to bring together the main steps of the argument that is presented this book. 

1. Scale and Category Grammar (S&C) was essentially a theory of syntax, and so an account of the structure of language at the level of form (as we saw in Chapter 2). 

2. A modern, computer-implementable theory of language must have levels of form and meaning, providing for both a 'potential' and 'instances' of the potential at both levels (as described in Chapter 3). 

3. Halliday's development of the theory into Systemic Functional Grammar involved (1) placing the concept of 'system' at the centre of the theory, (2) presenting the resulting system networks as choices between meanings, and (3) seeing each clause as the realisation of several different 'strands of meaning' (as outlined in the first half of Chapter 4).

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading, because it is untrue, as previously demonstrated here. Even Halliday's initial theory went well beyond mere syntax. Moreover, any argument that includes Scale and Category Grammar is an instance of the Red Herring logical fallacy, since this was a distinct theory from Systemic Functional Grammar, and hence irrelevant to considerations of the latter.

[2] This is misleading, because it merely restates Fawcett's model (Figure 4), giving the false impression that its theoretical architecture has been established by reasoned argument. Moreover, Fawcett's model is invalidated by multiple internal inconsistencies, such as the confusion of axis with instantiation, as previously demonstrated here.

[3] This is misleading, because it couches Halliday's theory in terms of Fawcett's model, which only distinguishes meaning and form, and only has systems at the level of meaning. Halliday distinguishes three levels of language — meaning, wording and sounding — with lexicogrammatical systems as systems of wording. It is only in the absence of grammatical metaphor that meaning and wording are in accord ('congruent').

[4] This is misleading, because it misrepresents Fawcett's theoretical priority, the syntagmatic axis, as Halliday's theoretical priority. In Systemic Functional Grammar, priority is given to the paradigmatic axis, such that a clause is modelled as conjoint metafunctional systems that specify structural realisations.

Fawcett's Claim That IFG-Style Analyses Are Misleading

Fawcett (2010: 152):

However, Halliday also occasionally states that it is desirable to represent the clause in terms of the features selected in the system networks that show the language's 'meaning potential', i.e., the features from which it has been generated. The problem is that he provides no examples of descriptions of this sort. It is hard to understand why this should be so. It may be that the need to provide a systemic representation seems less urgent to those working in the Sydney Grammar, because an IFG-style analysis already expresses (though in a misleading way, I would of course say) the multifunctional nature of language. 

In the Cardiff Grammar, on the other hand, a systemic representation in terms of the features that have been chosen in generating the text is regarded as a vital second level of representation in any attempt to represent the meanings as well as the forms of language. As the lower half of Figure 10 shows, the systemic representation takes the form of a display of the key features from the selection expression, arranged in separate lines, such that each feature is entered in a column below the element to whose generation it contributes. Since it is at this level that meanings are modelled, it is natural to show the strands of meaning at this level too — and there is therefore no need to show them at the level of form as well. The representation of functional structure in the Cardiff framework is therefore much simpler than its equivalent in IFG, in that there is only a single structure at this level — not the five to seven (or even sometimes eight or more) structures that are shown in the analyses in IFG. To see the difference, compare the structural analysis in Figure 10 with that in Figure 7.

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading, because it is untrue. Halliday & Matthiessen (2004) provides examples for theme (p101), mood (p158-9, 164-7) and transitivity (p304-5).

[2] To be clear, this is easier to understand if Halliday's own explanation in the Introduction to the first two editions of IFG is taken into account. Halliday (1985 and 1994: xv):

[3] As previously demonstrated, this is misleading because it is untrue.

[4] As previously explained, the Cardiff Grammar analysis (Figure 10) confuses the syntagmatic axis (structure at the level of syntax) with the paradigmatic axis (features at the level of semantics) and, in doing so, misattributes features of the clause to individual elements of clause structure.

[5] As this wording makes clear, Fawcett mistakes systemic features (paradigmatic axis) for syntagmatic structures ('strands of meaning').

[6] As previously explained, the Cardiff Grammar analysis (Figure 10) violates this stipulation by including metafunctional meanings at the level of form "as well". The interpersonal meanings are Subject, Complement and Adjunct; the experiential meanings are Agent and Affected (Medium).

[7] To be clear, this is misleading, because the Cardiff Grammar analysis (Figure 10) is not simpler,  when taken as a whole, since it requires more levels and more types of meaning to provide an analysis equivalent to that of the "Sydney Grammar" (Figure 7). Consider how little Figure 10 actually analyses, if the semantic level is not included.

[8] To be clear, this is misleading, because it is untrue. As previously explained, the analyses of clause structure in IFG feature only three lines of meaning, one for each metafunction: theme (textual), mood (interpersonal) and transitivity (experiential). Fawcett inflates this number by misconstruing information as a system of the clause, and counting mood and theme structures twice. Fawcett's own model (Figure 10) involves seven levels analysis.

Two Further Problems With Halliday's Approach To Modelling Structure

Fawcett (2010: 151-2):

Two further problems with Halliday's current approach to modelling structure are that we are not shown (1) what the final, integrated structure would be like, or (2) what the component that performs this integration on structures with non-coterminous elements would be like. It seems likely that the final structure would have to be something like the structure shown in the upper half of Figure 10, but after Halliday (1970/76b) and (1977/78), Halliday appears to have abandoned that position, as we saw in Section 4.9 of Chapter 4.

So far as I am aware, the present book is the first publication in which the point is made that IFG-style representations do not play a role in the theoretical-generative version of the theory — and indeed that they are incapable of doing so, because of the inherent problem that it is only possible to conflate elements (or indeed units) when they are coterminous.

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading, because it misrepresents SFL Theory. To be clear, the reason why "we are not shown" "the final integrated structure" or "the component that performs the operation" is simply that a "final integrated structure" is inconsistent with SFL Theory, as previously explained. In SFL Theory, the three metafunctional structures of the clause are integrated in the formal syntagm of groups and phrases that realises clause structure.

[2] To be clear, the reason why the present book is the first publication to make these claims is that the claims are invalid, since they are based on Fawcett's misunderstandings of SFL Theory, as demonstrated in many preceding posts.

Misrepresenting Halliday As Misrepresenting His Own Theory

Fawcett (2010: 151):

The problem for the text analyst who is using SF grammar is that of how best to represent all three of (1) its functional syntax, (2) its meanings and (3) the multifunctional nature of language. 

As we have seen, the Sydney Grammar's approach is to present each clause as having several different functional structures, one for each of the five to eight lines of analysis that are recognised in that approach. (There are not just three or four, as many of the writings of Halliday and others imply). In this view every clause is a conflation of several different structures, each roughly of clause length (give or take an element or two). Any one element in such a structure is said to be capable of being conflated with other elements in other structures — including ones that are not coterminous. This approach produces attractive diagrams that illustrate the 'strands of meaning' metaphor of language. However, such diagrams are essentially a misrepresentation of the real position, because it is only some functional elements in some of the functional structures that are recognised in this version of the theory that can be conflated in this manner, and there are long stretches in several of the strands of meaning in which there is nothing to be said about the meaning (i.e., the boxes labelled 'Rheme', 'Given' and 'Residue', in Sydney Grammar analyses).

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading, because it misrepresents Systemic Functional Grammar. On the one hand, 'functional syntax' is a component of Fawcett's Cardiff Grammar only, and, as Halliday (1985/1994: xiv) has explained, is inconsistent with the theoretical approach of Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory. On the other hand, the 'multifunctional nature of language' is not distinct from meaning, but its metafunctional differentiation.

[2] This is misleading, because it is untrue, as previously explained. In the "Sydney Grammar" (Halliday's version of the theory he himself created), clause structure involves three strands of meaning: theme (textual), mood (interpersonal) and transitivity (experiential). Fawcett inflates this by counting mood and theme twice, and by mistaking information as a structure of the clause.

[3] This is misleading, because it is untrue, as previously explained. In Halliday's theory, there is no "structure conflation", and given that structure is the relation between elements, structure conflation is nonsensical.

[4] This is misleading, because it is untrue, as previously explained. In Halliday's theory, element conflation is a realisation rule that specifies structural realisations of systemic choices. This is not specified for all elements, and it only applies to elements that are realised by the same syntagmatic unit ("coterminous elements").

[5] This is misleading, because 'strands of meaning' is a congruent realisation of the theory, not a metaphorical rendering that stands for something else.

[6] This is misleading, because it is untrue. Halliday's structural diagrams are faithful representations of his theory. The only misrepresentations here are Fawcett's, as multiple lines of evidence on this blog have demonstrated.

[7] This is misleading, because it misrepresents a statement that is consistent with Halliday's model as inconsistent with it.

[8] This is misleading, because it is untrue. On the one hand, Rheme and Residue (clause) and Given (information unit) are single elements. The notion of "long stretches" betrays the fact that Fawcett view is of formal constituents, not functional elements. On the other hand, and more importantly, the meaning of each of Rheme and Residue (clause) and Given (information unit) involves what might be termed 'negative structural complementarity':

• Rheme ("not Theme") structurally complements the Theme element of the clause,
• Residue ("not Mood") structurally complements Mood element of the clause,
• Given ("not New") structurally complements New element of the information unit.

Fawcett (in press) and Fawcett (forthcoming a)

Fawcett (2010: 150-1):

Very large quantities of text analysis in terms of the Cardiff Grammar have been undertaken over the last twenty-five years as part of its development — most at the level of functional syntax (e.g., in the major text-analysis project described in Fawcett & Perkins 1980), but also in the last decade at the level of meaning (a good example of the latter being Ball 1995). Tucker (1998) provides a very fine introduction to the treatment of adjectives and of all of the structures into which they may enter in Cardiff Grammar terms, but since Fawcett (1974-6 /81) there has unfortunately not been a publication that offers overall coverage of either level of description.

However the publication of Fawcett (in press) will make publicly available both a broad coverage grammar of functional syntax and full guidelines for analysing texts in these terms. Then Fawcett (forthcoming a) will make available, in a form that is usable for text analysis, the major system networks for English, in a systemic functional grammar in which the networks constitute the level of semantics. This volume will also provide guidelines for using the system networks for the semantic description of texts.

Blogger Comments:

[1] This promised 'in press' publication

• Fawcett, Robin, in press. Functional Syntax Handbook: Analysing English at the Level of Form. London: Continuum.

remains unpublished, 20 years after the first edition of the publication under review. It is current publication date is listed as November 2022, having previously been promised for January 2022, November 2021 and January 2020.

[2] This promised 'forthcoming' publication

• Fawcett, Robin, forthcoming a.  Functional Semantics Handbook: Analysing English at the Level of Meaning. London: Continuum .

also remains unpublished, 20 years after the first edition of the publication under review. No expected publication date is currently available.

Misrepresenting A Disadvantage Of The Cardiff Grammar As A 'Great Advantage'

Fawcett (2010: 150n):

One great advantage of a model in which the system network is explicitly semantic is that it often avoids the need to introduce the 'double analysis' of a single 'strand of meaning', which involves what Halliday calls 'grammatical metaphor'. (For an introduction to this set of concepts see Halliday 1994:340-67.) 

Consider the case of Could you read that again? In the Cardiff Grammar this is analysed as directly expressing the meaning of 'request' (a choice in the semantic network for MOOD), but in IFG there is no such feature at this level of analysis and it would be analysed as a 'polar interrogative' — but one which the Addressee is expected to re-interp[r]et as the 'imperative' Read than again\. 

A similar example of "interpersonal metaphor" occurs in IFG (p. 378), where Halliday first analyses you have to be beautiful with it as a 'declarative', and then re-expresses it as be beautiful with it and analyses it as an 'imperative'. In the Cardiff Grammar, it is treated as a direct realisation of an option in the semantic MOOD network (specifically, as a sub-type of 'directive' with the feature 'requirement').

Blogger Comments:

[1] This is misleading, because it misrepresents — in a footnote — a significant disadvantage of the Cardiff Grammar as "one great advantage". In Halliday's model, grammatical metaphor involves making two meanings at once, and this is unaccounted for in a model (Figure 4) whose levels of analysis are merely meaning and form.

[2] To be clear, the wording Could you read that again? could realise either:

• a command: Could you read that again (please)?, or
• a question: Could you read that again (if you had to)?

Fawcett offers no principled way of differentiating the two meanings from the same wording in his analysis.

[3] This is misleading, because it misrepresents how Could you read that again? would be analysed using IFG (Halliday 1994). At 'this level of analysis' — semantics — this instance would be analysed as a command (the SPEECH FUNCTION features 'demand' and 'goods-&-services'), whereas 'polar interrogative' (MOOD) would be the analysis at the level of lexicogrammar. It is the mismatch between meaning and wording that constitutes the grammatical metaphor: a command is congruently realised by imperative mood, whereas interrogative mood is the congruent realisation of a question.

[4] This is misleading, because it underplays the significance of Halliday's analysis, which shows both the metaphorical wording (MOOD (1)) and the congruent wording (MOOD (2)), thereby also demonstrating the systemic agnation of imperatives and modulated declaratives. (Halliday 1994: 378):

[5] To be clear, the Cardiff Grammar analysis merely relabels 'imperative' MOOD as 'directive' and 'modulation' as 'requirement' and provides no explanation as to why such features should be realised as a declarative clause instead of an imperative. (The systems from which these features derive are not provided.)

Fawcett's Summary Of His Answers To His First Two Difficult Questions For The Cardiff Grammar

Fawcett (2010: 150):

We can summarise this section by answering Questions la to lc with respect to the Cardiff Grammar. Firstly, in a full account of the analysis or generation of a text, we need to show representations at the levels of both meaning and form. Secondly, the multifunctional nature of language is most appropriately shown at the level of meaning. Thirdly, conflation occurs between individual elements, as exemplified in the relations between the Subject and Agent in Figure 10, and not between clause-length structures.

But what about Question 2? How complete are the Cardiff Grammar's descriptions of English (or any other language) at each of these two levels? And how available are they for general use in analysing texts? The first part of the answer is that the description and computer implementation of the lexicogrammar of English is very large indeed. Moreover, it has the advantage over other SF models that its system networks have been developed to function explicitly at the level of semantics, so that there is no need for a further level of analysis, e.g., as suggested in Halliday & Matthiessen (1999).

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, the Cardiff Grammar's levels of meaning and form are inconsistent with SFL Theory, which operates with three levels of language: meaning, wording and sounding/writing.

[2] To be clear, the Cardiff Grammar violates this principle by including "the multifunctional nature of language" at the level of form (Agent and Affected are experiential, Subject and Complement are interpersonal).

[3] This is misleading. As previously seen, Fawcett has repeatedly misrepresented Halliday's version of his own theory as involving the conflation of structures, rather than elements.

[4] This is misleading. The size of the Cardiff Grammar's description of the lexicogrammar of English, even if substantiated, is not a measure of the completeness of its description — just as the size of a beheaded statue is not a measure of its completeness.

[5] To be clear, these systems do not appear in this publication, and the only system that does, Figure 1 of Appendix A, violates the principles of a system network, as previously demonstrated. Moreover, the promised work:

• Fawcett, Robin, forthcoming a. Functional Semantics Handbook: Analysing English at the Level of Meaning. London: Continuum

remains unpublished 20 years after the first edition of this publication (2000).

[6] To be clear, this is a non-sequitur. Even if Fawcett has developed semantic networks, this does not entail that the model of semantics in Halliday & Matthiessen (1999) is unnecessary.

[7] To be clear, the model of semantics in Halliday & Matthiessen (1999) provides the means of accounting for grammatical metaphor in a systematic fashion, and grammatical metaphor is the major means by which meaning potential is expanded.

Inferring Meaning From Syntax

Fawcett (2010: 149-50, 150n):

The representation of the syntax is sufficiently rich for all aspects of its multifunctional meaning to be shown in it — or to be directly inferable from it. Thus a text analyst who is equipped with an appropriate handbook can work out, from the evidence of the items and the functional structure, what the associated semantic features are. For example, even though the structure does not show that there is a 'Theme' that is conflated with the Subject and Agent, we can infer directly from the structural analysis that the item We is the type of Theme called here a "Subject Theme". (If it had been an 'empty Subject', as in It's nice to see you, it would not have a Participant Role conflated with it.)

In a computer model of text analysis there is a broadly equivalent component (called the 'semantic interpreter'). In a similar way this reconstructs, on the evidence of the analysis of the functional syntax, the features that must have been chosen in generating that particular structure.²⁴

²⁴ See O'Donoghue (1994) for a description of the semantic interpreter that has been developed for the Cardiff Grammar, its task being to turn a syntactically analysed clause into its set of selection expressions.

Blogger Comments:

[1] Again, this demonstrates that the Cardiff Grammar's theoretical orientation is the opposite of Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory, since it proceeds from form to meaning, rather than from meaning to form. Halliday (1985, 1994: xiv):

[2] Fawcett's Functional Syntax Handbook (forthcoming 2011a) is still unpublished, the latest due date being November 2021. Fawcett's Functional Semantics Handbook (forthcoming 2011b) is still unpublished.

How The Cardiff Grammar Operates In Its Full, Generative Version

Fawcett (2010: 149):

Let us now look for a moment at how the Cardiff Grammar operates in its full, generative version. The first stage is the selection of the features in the system network, i.e., the creation of a selection expression. The 'key' features that have been selected in the present example are displayed in the lower half of Figure 10. The realisation rules then integrate the various partial 'strands of meaning' that are represented by these features into a single functional structure (e.g., as shown in the top half of Figure 10). This involves the conflation of some elements with each other and with participant roles, such as the conflation of the Agent ("Ag") with the Subject ("S"). Notice that, in contrast with the 'structure conflation' version of the Sydney Grammar, there is no expectation that every element — or almost every element — will be conflated with an element in another strand of meaning.

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, as the wording above demonstrates, the Cardiff Grammar is not a model of language, but a sequenced set of procedures for computer-mediated text generation, as represented in Figure 4 (p36):

[2] To be clear, despite this being "how the Cardiff Grammar operates in its full generative version", Fawcett does not provide either (a) the system networks of features from which selection expressions are derived or (b) the realisation rules that specify precisely how paradigmatic semantic features are realised syntagmatically at the level of form. Figure 10 (p148) merely presents an end product to be taken on trust:

[3] This is misleading, because it is the opposite of what is true, and as such, misrepresents Halliday's version of his own theory ("the Sydney Grammar"). As previously explained, there is no "structure conflation" in SFL Theory, not least because structure conflation is nonsensical in a theory that views structure as the relation between elements. As previously explained, Fawcett's misunderstanding derives from his confusion of clause constituents (the units of the rank scale) with elements of clause function structures, and from his view of structure as a sequence of isolated elements.

The Place Of Systemic Features In The Cardiff Grammar

Fawcett (2010: 148, 149):

This view of the nature of language is no less 'systemic' and no less 'functional' than that expressed in Halliday's "Systemic theory" and in IFG, because the sentence is still derived from system networks of choices between meanings, and the representation still shows the contribution to the integrated structure of the various strands of meaning for which the system networks provide. There is some conflation of individual elements (as opposed to structures), as Figure 10 shows, but the emphasis is now squarely on the representation of 'meaning' through the use of the features from the networks that model the 'meaning potential' of the language. And this is surely as it should be in a systemic functional representation, if Halliday is right that, in this theory, "the system takes priority" (Halliday 1993:4505). Moreover, the Cardiff representation adds an important element that is missing from the IFG representation, namely the representation of the integrated structure.

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, in this entire publication, Fawcett does not provide either (a) the system networks from which his semantic features are drawn, or (b) the realisation statements that specify how his structural elements at the level of form are derived from systemic choices at the level of meaning.

[2] As previously observed, Fawcett's semantic analysis (Figure 10) ignores the axial distinction of paradigm versus syntagm by representing paradigmatic features as syntagmatic ('strands of meaning'), which also has the further theoretically inconsistent consequence of assigning features of the entire clause to individual elements of clause structure.

[3] To be clear, in SFL Theory, the notion that the three metafunctional structures of the clause can be integrated as a single function structure is nonsensical. This is because, as previously explained, a structure is defined as the relations between elements, and the relations between elements of a clause differ according to metafunction. In SFL Theory, the three metafunctional clause structures are integrated as the formal syntagm of group/phrase units that realise them.

An Important Feature Of The Cardiff Grammar Analysis

Fawcett (2010: 148):

It is an important feature of the analysis that there is no expectation that each vertical column should be filled by a label for each strand of meaning. In other words, the analysis does not reflect the view embodied in IFG that a clause consists of a conflation of several different structures. Instead, a clause is regarded as the realisation, in a single, integrated structure, of the various types of meaning that are modelled in the system networks of TRANSITIVITY, MOOD, THEME and so on.

Blogger Comments:

[1] As previously observed, the semantic analysis in Figure 10 confuses structural elements (overt agent, overt affected, information-giver, subject theme, unmarked new) with systemic features (repeated past, social action, periodic frequency, positive, unassessed) and thereby assigns features of the clause as a whole to individual elements of structure.

[2] This is misleading, because it is a misrepresentation. As previously demonstrated, in SFL Theory, a clause does not consist of "a conflation of several different structures". Instead, the three metafunctional structures of a clause are integrated in the syntagm of group/phrase rank units that realise them. As previously explained, Fawcett's misunderstandings arise from confusing formal constituents with structural elements, and from viewing structure as a sequence of isolated elements, rather than as the relation between elements.

[3] To be clear, this construes the clause as a syntactic structure that realises semantic systems, rather than as a systemic feature that serves as the entry condition to grammatical systems that (a) realise semantic systems, and (b) are realised in grammatical structures.

[4] To be clear, the features in the analysis (Figure 10) do not reflect those of the systems of TRANSITIVITY, MOOD and THEME — see Halliday & Matthiessen (2014: 355, 162, 106) — and Fawcett provides neither his semantic systems of features nor, consequently, the means of deriving his structure from his systems.

The Second Stage In Text Analysis Using The Cardiff Grammar

Fawcett (2010: 147-8):

Then, at a second stage of analysis, the text is described in terms of its key semantic features, i.e., the most significant of the many features that have been chosen in generating it. An example of this type of analysis is shown in the lower half of Figure 10.

 

This displays the key semantic features, arranged in a number of strands of meaning. But note that there is no expectation that all or even most of a 'strand' will be used. Each feature is placed below the element (or elements) of the clause to whose generation it has contributed. There is no space here, of course, to show the system networks from which these features are derived, nor to comment on each feature. Notice, though, that the Subject contributes to two types of meaning: that of 'information giver' and that of 'subject theme'— as well as being conflated with the Agent. I hope that the labels used for the features are sufficiently transparent to give a flavour of this type of multi-strand analysis, and so of its value in analysing texts. 

Perhaps the most important characteristic of the diagram is that it shows how an analyst can first determine the functional syntax of a one-clause text such as this example, and then go on to derive from it, in a relatively direct and natural manner, the semantic analysis, showing these features in terms of the major strands of meaning.

Blogger Comments:

[1] As previously observed, Figure 10 misrepresents systemic features (paradigmatic axis) as structural elements (syntagmatic axis).

[2] As previously observed, Figure 10 mistakenly assigns features of the clause to individual elements of clause structure.

[3] This is misleading, because it is the opposite of what is true. In a book of 360 pages, there is ample space 'to show the system networks from which these features are derived' and to 'comment on each feature'. Moreover, without the networks, the valeur of each feature — its relation to other features — is not even provided, let alone supported by reasoned argument.

[4] Notice, though, that Fawcett does not specify the valeur of either 'information giver' or 'subject theme', and that the "Agent" is actually the Medium through which the Process unfolds.

[5] To be clear, Figure 10 does not show either how an analyst determines "the functional syntax of a one-clause text" or how to derive a semantic analysis from it, it merely presents each as a fait accompli.

[6] Again, this demonstrates that the Cardiff Grammar's theoretical orientation is the opposite of Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory, since it proceeds from form to meaning, rather than from meaning to form. Halliday (1985, 1994: xiv):

The Structure Of The Clause In The Cardiff Grammar

Fawcett (2010: 147):

For the reader who is familiar with Halliday's work, it may be helpful to think of the structure of a clause as being represented in the present approach rather as a group is represented in IFG. In other words, the 'metafunctions' "are not represented in the form of separate whole structures, but rather as partial contributions to a single structural line" (Halliday (1994:179). This does not deny the fact that many elements of the clause constitute the simultaneous realisation of several different types of meaning. In Figure 10, for example, the word We simultaneously realises the Subject and the Agent — and, as we shall see in a moment, the Subject itself is the realisation of two meanings.

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, this flatly contradicts Fawcett's previous insistence (p146) that the metafunctional nature of language should only be represented at the level of meaning:

In the framework of the Cardiff Grammar, where the representation at the level of form is the final, integrated output, it is clear that the level of representation at which the multifunctional nature of language should be displayed is in the representation of the meanings — because at the lower level the various strands of meaning have already been integrated into a single structure.

[2] To be clear, this again confuses constituents of the clause (groups and phrases), which can realise "several different types of meaning", with elements of clause structure, such as Theme or Subject, which cannot. A Theme realises textual meaning only; a Subject realises interpersonal meaning only.

[3] As previously observed, in the clause We would visit Mrs S every Sunday, we serves as the Medium through which the Process unfolds, with Mrs S serving as the Range or domain of the Process. There is no external cause of the Process construed as a participant (Agent). Reminder:

[4] This claim will be examined in situ. (The two meanings said to be realised by 'Subject' are 'subject theme' and 'information giver', the last of which is represented as not coterminous with the other two.)

The First Stage In Text Analysis Using The Cardiff Grammar

Fawcett (2010: 147):

It follows from this that the approach to analysing texts when using the Cardiff Grammar has certain significant differences from that of the current Sydney Grammar. The first stage is to analyse its functional syntax. This is shown in a single but richly labelled functional structure, as in the upper half of Figure 10. Thus the analyst does not go looking for a set of structures that correspond to each strand of meaning, as an IFG-style analysis of a clause.

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, the Cardiff Grammar approach to analysing texts gives priority to structure and form, whereas Systemic Functional Grammar gives priority to system and function, where the function of language is to make meaning. Halliday & Matthiessen (2014: 48-9):

We cannot expect to understand the grammar just by looking at it from its own level; we also look into it ‘from above’ and ‘from below’, taking a trinocular perspective (Halliday, 1978: 130–131; 1996). But since the view from these different angles is often conflicting, the description will inevitably be a form of compromise. All linguistic description involves such compromise; the difference between a systemic description and one in terms of traditional school grammar is that in the school grammars the compromise was random and unprincipled whereas in a systemic grammar it is systematic and theoretically motivated. Being a ‘functional grammar’ means that priority is given to the view ‘from above’; that is, grammar is seen as a resource for making meaning – it is a semanticky kind of grammar. But the focus of attention is still on the grammar itself.

Giving priority to the view ‘from above’ means that the organising principle adopted is that of system: the grammar is seen as a network of interrelated meaningful choices. In other words, the dominant axis is the paradigmatic one: the fundamental components of the grammar are sets of mutually defining contrastive features (for an early statement, see Halliday, 1966a). Explaining something consists not in stating how it is structured but in showing how it is related to other things: its pattern of systemic relationships, or agnateness (agnation…).

[2] To be clear, the "richly" labelled functional structure in Figure 10 (p148) is a confusion of a class of form (Main verb), experiential functions (Agent, Affected) — misanalysed — and interpersonal functions (Subject, Operator, Complement, Adjunct):

Moreover, in terms of SFL Theory, Fawcett's model misunderstands structure as a sequence of isolates rather than as a relation between elements (e.g. what is the relation between Agent and Operator?). Halliday & Matthiessen (2014: 49, 83-4):

Structure is analysed in functional terms, explaining the part played by each element in the organic configuration of the whole. …

Theme, Subject and Actor do not occur as isolates; each occurs in association with other functions from the same strand of meaning. …

The significance of any functional label lies in its relationship to the other functions with which it is structurally associated. It is the structure as a whole, the total configuration of functions, that construes, or realises, the meaning. The function Actor, for example, is interpretable only in its relation to other functions of the same kind – other representational functions such as Process and Goal. … It is the relation among all these that constitutes the structure. In similar fashion, the Subject enters into configurations with other functional elements as realisation of the clause as exchange; and likewise the Theme, in realising the clause as message.

[3] This is misleading, because it misrepresents the SFL approach to text analysis by shifting its priority from system to structure. Halliday & Matthiessen (2014: 54):

When we observe a language, we observe it as text – as a flow of speech or as (typically) discrete pieces of writing. Texts lie at the instance pole of the cline of instantiation, and once we have observed and collected them and made them accessible to study (e.g. by transcribing spoken text), we can proceed by analysing them, noting patterns in these instances. (i) If we have access to an existing account of the system of the language (at the potential pole of the cline of instantiation), then we will analyse texts by relating instantial patterns in the system. In other words, we undertake the analysis of texts by means of the description of the system that lies behind them… , identifying terms in systems and fragments of structures that are instantiated in the text. … (ii) If there is no description to draw on, this means that we will gradually have to develop one based on the analysis of a representative sample of texts (a corpus…).

Fawcett's Third Difficult Question For The Cardiff Grammar

Fawcett (2010: 146-7):

The third question was "In the representation at the level of form, is the conflation that occurs between the realisations of the various strands of meaning a conflation of whole structures or of individual elements?" Here the answer will be clear from the previous sections, and it is that the conflations occur between specific coterminous elements, as complex nodes in the single integrated syntactic representation.

Blogger Comments:

Reminder of the Cardiff Grammar representation (Figure 10, p148):

[1] To be clear, Fawcett's third "difficult" question for the Cardiff Grammar is merely an invitation for him to describe one aspect of it. It is not a question that seeks a justification of the theorising itself.

[2] To be clear, the rhetorical significance of this question is that Fawcett has previously misrepresented Halliday's model as involving structure conflation, and argued that structure conflation is problematic. Fawcett's model therefore does not suffer from the problems he wrongly attributes to Halliday's model.

[3] To be clear, Fawcett's answer is merely a bare assertion, with no supporting argumentation — either here or in the previous sections. For example, having argued against representing metafunctional meanings at the level of form, he provides no explanation as to why the two conflations in Figure 10 are conflations of interpersonal elements with experiential elements: Subject with Agent, and Complement with Affected (Medium) — leaving aside the fact that, in terms of SFL Theory, Subject actually conflates with Medium, and Complement with Range.

Fawcett's Second Difficult Question For The Cardiff Grammar

Fawcett (2010: 146-7):

The second question was "In a model with representations at the level of both form and meaning, is it desirable — or indeed necessary — to show explicitly the multifunctional nature of language at both levels?" 

In the framework of the Cardiff Grammar, where the representation at the level of form is the final, integrated output, it is clear that the level of representation at which the multifunctional nature of language should be displayed is in the representation of the meanings — because at the lower level the various strands of meaning have already been integrated into a single structure. 

The effects on the structure of the various stra[n]ds of meaning can be discerned, of course, but it is the division of the selection expression of features chosen in the system networks into their various types of meaning that displays in the most straight-forward manner the multifunctional nature of language. It is therefore the role of the semantic representation to display the contribution of the various types of meaning to the text, and it is the role of syntax to show the integration of these intermittent 'strands of meaning' in a single structure.

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, "a model with representations at the level of both form and meaning" is inconsistent with SFL Theory, because in the latter, the levels are the strata of meaning (semantics), wording (lexicogrammar), and sounding (phonology), all of which are levels of function, not form. This is because Systemic Functional Linguistics prioritises the function of language over its form. Linguistic form is modelled as rank scales on the strata of lexicogrammar and phonology. The Cardiff Grammar has neither rank scales nor a level of phonology.

[2] To be clear, this second "difficult" question that Fawcett poses is merely, like the first, one that elicits his own modal assessment ("desirable"/"necessary") of his own model, rather than a question as to the validity or consistency of the model.

[3] To be clear, in "a model with representations at the level of both form and meaning", it would be theoretically (and logically) inconsistent to present any functions whatsoever at the level of form. This is one reason why Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory does not include a level of form. 

[4] To be clear, as previously explained, in Fawcett's model, Figure 4 (p36), selection expressions (paradigmatic axis) are misunderstood as instances, and misaligned with structure (syntagmatic axis):

The consequence of these misunderstandings can be seen in Fawcett's analysis of a clause, Figure 10 (p148), where features of the entire clause are misrepresented as features of single structural elements:

[5] To be clear, this is a statement of Fawcett's model only, since the notion of 'syntax' is inconsistent with the fundamental principles of SFL Theory, as Halliday explained in the first two editions of IFG (1985: xiv; 1994: xiv):

∞

In Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory, priority is given to higher levels of abstraction: system over structure, and function over form, in contradistinction to Fawcett's discussion of the Cardiff Grammar, where the focus is continually on lower levels of abstraction: (representations of) structure at the level of form.

Fawcett's First Difficult Question For The Cardiff Grammar

Fawcett (2010: 146):

Let us now ask the same difficult questions in relation to the Cardiff Grammar that we asked about the Sydney Grammar. 

The first was 'Is it desirable — or indeed necessary — to have representations of a text at the levels of both form and meaning?" The answer is clear: In this model of language it is both necessary and desirable, and the model operates with the two representations of texts implied by the model of language summarised in Figure 4 in Section 3.2 of Chapter 3 — both in the description of texts and in text generation. Thus, if our goal is the full analysis of a text, it is necessary to provide representations of a text in terms of (1) the features that define its meaning potential and (2) the single functional structure that integrates the various different types of meaning (as in Figure 10).

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, the "difficult" question Fawcett poses for his own model is merely one that elicits his own modal assessment ("desirable"/"necessary") regarding its usage, rather than a question as to the validity or consistency of the model. Moreover, it is simply a question of whether both levels of his model should be used in text analysis, to which Fawcett's own assessment is a resounding 'yes', though he provides no reasoned argumentation for his answer. The vacuousness of the question and answer can be made more obvious by considering the alternative response: that only one level, either form or meaning, should be deployed in text analysis.

[2] As previously argued here, and in many posts since, the model of language summarised in Figure 4 is invalidated by its internal inconsistencies. Reminder (p36):

[3] The use of thus here gives the false impression that premisses of an argument have been presented, and that a reasoned conclusion follows, whereas in fact, Fawcett's modal assessment has merely been been asserted before and after the thus.

[4] Here again Fawcett confuses meaning potential (language as system) with meaning (the semantic stratum). The meaning (semantics) of a text is instantial, not potential. But more importantly, despite arguing for the importance of the level of meaning for text analysis, Fawcett provides no genuine systems of semantic features in this entire publication. As previously observed, his one system (Appendix Figure 1) is largely grammatical and presents lexical items as more delicate features of the noun categories 'mass' and 'count'. Reminder (p298):

[5] As previously observed, Fawcett's functional structure at his level of form — a contradiction in itself — confuses functional elements (Subject/Agent, Operator, Complement/Affected, Adjunct) with a class of form (Main verb). Moreover, as previously observed, Fawcett's semantics confuses elements of syntagmatic structure (overt agent, overt affected, information giver, subject theme, unmarked New) with paradigmatic features (repeated past, social action, periodic frequency, positive, unassessed) and, as a consequence, ascribes the paradigmatic features to elements of clause structure, rather than to the (entire) clause as a unit. Reminder (p148):

Fawcett's 'Alternative Way Of Representing The Multifunctional Nature Of Language'

Fawcett (2010: 145-6):

In Section 7.8 we shall meet an alternative way of representing the multifunctional nature of language in diagram form. It is an exploration of a method suggested by Halliday himself in the passages cited in Section 7.3, and it has the advantage that it suffers from none of the problems that we have encountered in our examination of the type of representations used in IFG — except that there is no published account of it with the breadth of coverage of IFG and Matthiessen (1995) — not as yet, that is.

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, the "alternative way of representing the multifunctional nature of language in diagram form" is Fawcett's Figure 10 (p148):

[2] This is misleading, because it is untrue.  The cited passages (p118) are:

This book [...] presents the structures which are the 'output' of the networks — which collectively realise the sets of features that can be chosen. (Halliday 1994:xxvii) 

all the structural analyses could be reinterpreted in terms of the features selected. (Halliday 1994:xxvii) 

in systemic theory the system takes priority; the most abstract representation [...] is in paradigmatic terms. [...] Syntagmatic organisation is interpreted as the 'realisation' of paradigmatic features, the 'meaning potential'. (Halliday 1993:4505)

As these quotes demonstrate, Halliday is concerned with identifying system as the most abstract representation, and structure as its lower level realisation. Halliday does not suggest confusing syntagmatic structures of the grammatical stratum with paradigmatic features of the semantic stratum.

[3] This is misleading. On the one hand, as previously demonstrated, the "problems that we have encountered" are problems with Fawcett's understanding of SFL Theory, specifically its model of function structure and formal constituency. On the other hand, there are multiple theoretical inconsistencies with Fawcett's model, such as

• confusing function labels (Subject/Agent, Operator, Complement/Affected, Adjunct) with class labels (Main verb),
• assigning clause features to individual elements of structure rather than to the clause itself, 
• confusing systemic features (repeated past, social action, periodic frequency, positive, unassessed) with structural elements (overt agent, overt affected, information giver, subject theme, unmarked new), and
• misrepresenting information as a clause system.

Moreover, Fawcett does not provide any systems to justify his features, and the analysis itself is inconsistent with SFL Theory. For example,

• the Medium (we) is misconstrued as Agent,
• the Range (Mrs S) is misconstrued as Affected (Medium).

Fawcett's Summary Of Fawcett's Answers to Fawcett's Questions

Fawcett (2010: 145):

Let us now summarise where the Sydney Grammar stands in relation to the searching questions asked in this chapter. 

In answer to Question la, it is clearly desirable to have representations of a text at the levels of both form and meaning. 

In answer to Question lb, it is natural for the semantic representation to show the different 'strands of meaning' (which do not necessarily run all the way through a clause), but the whole purpose of the representation at the level of form is to integrate the various types of meaning into a single structure, so that it is not appropriate to show the various strands of meaning at this level too. (The only reason for doing so would be if we did not have the descriptive apparatus at the level of meaning, which appears to be the case in the framework of current Sydney Grammar publications.) 

The answer to Question 1c is that 'conflation' is an operation that relates two elements (or 'functions') in a clause rather than clause-length representations. The 'multi-strand' representations of the functional structure of clauses in IFG may be a helpful aid to some when thinking about the strands of meaning that are found in a text — if no better means is available — but they play no part in a generative systemic functional grammar. Indeed, it would be helpful if this could be made clear in future writings in the Sydney Grammar framework, e.g., in the next edition of IFG.

Blogger Comments:

[1] To be clear, form and meaning are levels in Fawcett's model, not SFL Theory. In the latter, the levels of language are the strata of semantics, lexicogrammar and phonology, and grammatical form is theorised as a rank scale.

[2] To be clear, in SFL Theory, the structure of each clause involves three lines of meaning, but not all clause constituents, groups and phrases, realise all three types of meaning.

[3] This is misleading, because it is untrue. The level of form is a level in Fawcett's model (Figure 4) only, and the integration of various types of meaning into a single structure might be the "whole purpose" of structural representation in Fawcett's model, but that is not the case in SFL Theory. In the latter, the three lines of clause rank structure are integrated in the syntagm of units, groups and phrases, that realise them.

[4] This very misleading indeed, since a "descriptive apparatus at the level of meaning" (semantics) was provided in Halliday & Matthiessen (1999), which, though focused on ideational semantics, includes discussions on interpersonal and textual semantics.

[5] To be clear, as previously demonstrated, the notion that "clause-length representations" are conflated is a figment of Fawcett's imagination, derived from his misunderstandings of the SFL theorising of formal constituency and functional structure.

[6] This is misleading, because it is untrue. The 'multi-strand' representations in IFG are theoretically-consistent representations of the structures that realise the three metafunctional systems at the rank of clause. This is why they still form the backbone of later editions of IFG (Halliday & Matthiessen 2004, 2014).